Anti-Aging Peptides: The Complete Guide to Epithalon, GHK-Cu, SS-31 & More

⚠️ Medical Disclaimer: This article is for educational purposes only. It is not medical advice. Peptides can have serious side effects and drug interactions. Always consult a qualified healthcare provider before using any peptide. Never self-diagnose or self-treat based on internet research.

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Key Takeaways

• Anti-aging peptides target the root causes of aging — not just wrinkles on the surface, but telomere shortening, mitochondrial damage, oxidative stress, and gene expression changes deep inside your cells.
• Epithalon is the most well-known longevity peptide. It may activate telomerase, the enzyme that protects your chromosomes from shortening. Most research comes from Russian studies with limited Western replication.
• GHK-Cu is the most evidence-backed for skin. Research shows it can boost collagen, speed wound healing, and may influence the expression of over 4,000 genes.
• SS-31 (elamipretide) targets mitochondria directly — the energy factories inside your cells that break down as you age.
• Pinealon, vilon, and cartalax are short "bioregulator" peptides from Russian research. They contain just 3 amino acids each and target the brain, immune system, and cartilage respectively.
• The science is promising but still early. Most of these peptides lack large-scale human clinical trials. Caution and medical supervision are essential.

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Why Do We Age? The Biology Behind Getting Old

Before we talk about anti-aging peptides, you need to understand why your body ages in the first place. Aging isn't one thing — it's a collection of biological processes that gradually break down your body's ability to repair and maintain itself.

Scientists have identified several key "hallmarks of aging." Anti-aging peptides try to target one or more of these:

Telomere Shortening

Inside every cell, your DNA is packaged into structures called chromosomes. At the tip of each chromosome is a protective cap called a telomere — think of it like the plastic tip on a shoelace that keeps it from fraying.

Every time a cell divides, its telomeres get a little shorter. After enough divisions, the telomeres become so short that the cell can no longer divide safely. It either dies or becomes a "zombie cell" (more on that below) that hangs around causing inflammation.

This is one of the fundamental clocks of aging. Babies have long telomeres. Old people have short ones. The enzyme telomerase can rebuild telomeres, but most adult cells don't produce enough of it.

Peptide connection: Epithalon is believed to activate telomerase, potentially slowing or even reversing telomere shortening.

Mitochondrial Dysfunction

Mitochondria are the tiny power plants inside your cells. They turn food and oxygen into energy (called ATP) that powers everything your body does — from thinking to running to healing a cut.

As you age, your mitochondria become less efficient. They produce less energy and more waste products called free radicals (also known as reactive oxygen species or ROS). These free radicals damage your DNA, proteins, and cell membranes — creating a vicious cycle of declining energy and increasing damage.

By the time you're 70, your mitochondria may produce 50–60% less energy than they did when you were 20.

Peptide connection: SS-31 (elamipretide) targets the inner membrane of mitochondria, helping to restore energy production and reduce free radical damage.

Changes in Gene Expression

Your DNA doesn't change much as you age (ignoring occasional mutations). But which genes are turned "on" or "off" changes dramatically. Think of your DNA as a cookbook — aging doesn't rewrite the recipes, but it changes which recipes the kitchen actually makes.

Young cells express genes related to repair, growth, and resilience. Older cells shift toward inflammation, breakdown, and dysfunction. This shift in gene expression is driven by epigenetic changes — modifications to your DNA's packaging that control gene activity without changing the DNA itself.

Peptide connection: GHK-Cu has been shown to influence the expression of over 4,000 genes, resetting many of them toward more youthful patterns.

Cellular Senescence

When cells are damaged beyond repair, they sometimes enter a state called senescence. These "zombie cells" stop dividing but refuse to die. They sit in your tissues and pump out inflammatory signals that damage neighboring healthy cells.

A few senescent cells aren't a problem. But as you age, they accumulate — driving chronic inflammation (sometimes called "inflammaging") that contributes to heart disease, arthritis, cognitive decline, and many other age-related conditions.

Peptide connection: Some research peptides (like FOXO4-DRI) aim to selectively kill senescent cells, though this is still very early-stage research.

Immune System Decline

Your immune system weakens as you age — a process called immunosenescence. Your thymus gland (which trains immune cells) shrinks after puberty. You produce fewer new immune cells. The ones you have work less efficiently.

This is why older people get more infections, respond less well to vaccines, and are more susceptible to cancer.

Peptide connection: Vilon is a bioregulator peptide that targets the immune system, particularly the thymus gland.

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The Anti-Aging Peptides: A Detailed Look

Now let's dive into the specific peptides that researchers are studying for their potential anti-aging effects.

Epithalon (Epitalon)

What it is: Epithalon is a synthetic peptide made of just four amino acids (Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly). It's a lab-made version of epithalamin, a natural substance produced by the pineal gland in your brain.

How it works: Epithalon is believed to activate the enzyme telomerase in human cells. Telomerase adds length back to telomeres — those protective caps on your chromosomes that shorten with age. By maintaining telomere length, the idea is that cells can keep dividing and functioning normally for longer.

Epithalon may also stimulate the pineal gland to produce melatonin in a more youthful pattern. Melatonin production normally declines with age, which affects sleep quality, circadian rhythm, and antioxidant defense.

What the research says:

The majority of epithalon research comes from the lab of Dr. Vladimir Khavinson at the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology in Russia. His team published several studies:

• Cell studies: Epithalon activated telomerase and extended the lifespan of human cell cultures by up to 44% compared to controls. (Khavinson et al., Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 2003)
• Animal studies: Mice given epithalon showed a 13.3% increase in median lifespan. They also had lower rates of spontaneous tumors. (Anisimov et al., Biogerontology, 2003)
• Small human studies: In a study of elderly patients (60–80 years old), those who received epithalon/epithalamin over several years showed improved immune function, restored melatonin production, and lower cardiovascular mortality compared to controls. (Khavinson, Neuroendocrinology Letters, 2003)

Important caveats: Most of this research comes from one research group. It has not been widely replicated by independent Western labs. The human studies were small and conducted under the Russian research framework, which historically has different standards than Western clinical trials. No large-scale randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have been published.

Evidence level: Promising but preliminary. Strong cell-culture data, supportive animal data, limited and non-replicated human data.

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GHK-Cu (Copper Peptide)

What it is: GHK-Cu is a tripeptide (just three amino acids: glycine-histidine-lysine) naturally bound to a copper ion. It's found naturally in human blood, saliva, and urine. Your body produces it on its own — but levels decline significantly with age. At age 20, your blood plasma contains about 200 ng/mL of GHK-Cu. By age 60, that drops to around 80 ng/mL.

How it works: GHK-Cu is a multitasker. It works through several mechanisms:

1. Collagen and skin repair: It stimulates the production of collagen, elastin, and glycosaminoglycans — the structural proteins that keep skin firm, elastic, and hydrated.
2. Wound healing: It promotes blood vessel growth (angiogenesis), attracts immune cells to wound sites, and reduces scarring.
3. Gene expression: A landmark 2012 study in Genome Biology found that GHK-Cu can influence the expression of over 4,000 human genes — about 31% of the human genome. Many of these changes push gene activity in a more youthful direction. (DOI: 10.1186/gb-2012-13-11-r80)
4. Anti-inflammatory effects: It reduces oxidative stress and calms excessive inflammation.
5. Antioxidant defense: It boosts the production of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and other antioxidant enzymes.

What the research says:

GHK-Cu has more published research than most anti-aging peptides, especially for skin applications:

• Skin rejuvenation: Multiple clinical trials have shown that topical GHK-Cu cream increases collagen synthesis, improves skin thickness, reduces fine lines, and improves overall skin appearance. One study found it outperformed vitamin C and retinoic acid creams for skin density improvement. (Pickart et al., International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 2012)
• Wound healing: GHK-Cu accelerates wound closure in both animal and human studies. It's been used in post-surgical recovery protocols.
• Hair growth: Some studies suggest GHK-Cu can increase hair follicle size and stimulate hair growth, similar to minoxidil.
• Gene expression: The 2012 Genome Biology study showed GHK-Cu could theoretically counteract gene expression patterns associated with aggressive cancer, COPD, and tissue destruction — though these are computational predictions that haven't all been confirmed in clinical trials.
• Organ protection: Animal studies show GHK-Cu may protect the liver, stomach lining, and lungs from damage.

How it's used: GHK-Cu is available both as a topical cream/serum (for skin) and as a subcutaneous injection (for systemic effects). The topical form is widely used in high-end skincare products. The injectable form is less common and typically used by longevity-focused practitioners.

Evidence level: Moderate to strong for topical skin applications. Promising but less proven for systemic anti-aging effects through injection.

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SS-31 (Elamipretide / Bendavia)

What it is: SS-31 is a synthetic tetrapeptide (four amino acids: D-Arg-Dmt-Lys-Phe-NH2) specifically designed to target mitochondria. It's one of the Szeto-Schiller (SS) peptides, named after the researchers who developed them. Unlike most molecules, SS-31 can penetrate directly into the inner mitochondrial membrane — the exact place where energy production happens and where age-related damage accumulates.

How it works: SS-31 concentrates in the inner mitochondrial membrane at about 1,000–5,000 times its concentration in the surrounding cell. Once there, it:

1. Stabilizes cardiolipin — a critical lipid in the mitochondrial membrane that holds the electron transport chain (your cell's energy assembly line) in the right shape. As cardiolipin breaks down with age, energy production drops and free radical leakage increases.
2. Reduces reactive oxygen species (ROS) — by keeping the electron transport chain running smoothly, it prevents the "leaky pipe" effect that produces damaging free radicals.
3. Improves ATP production — more efficient mitochondria mean more energy for cell repair, muscle function, brain activity, and every other process in your body.
4. Prevents mitochondrial swelling — a key step in the cell death cascade that accelerates tissue aging.

What the research says:

SS-31 is one of the most rigorously studied anti-aging peptides because it has entered formal pharmaceutical development under the name elamipretide (by the company Stealth BioTherapeutics):

• Heart failure: Phase 2 clinical trials in patients with heart failure showed improved heart function and exercise capacity. (Daubert et al., Circulation: Heart Failure, 2017)
• Barth syndrome: SS-31 received FDA Rare Pediatric Disease designation for Barth syndrome, a genetic mitochondrial disorder. Clinical trials showed meaningful improvements in muscle strength and heart function. (Thompson et al., Genetics in Medicine, 2021)
• Age-related muscle decline: In aged mice, SS-31 reversed age-related decline in muscle mitochondrial function — essentially making old mitochondria perform like young ones. The effects were seen within just one hour of treatment. (Siegel et al., Aging Cell, 2013)
• Kidney protection: Studies show SS-31 protects kidneys from ischemia-reperfusion injury (the damage that happens when blood flow is temporarily cut off and then restored).
• Vision: Phase 2 trials explored SS-31 for age-related macular degeneration (AMD), the leading cause of blindness in older adults.

Important context: While SS-31 has entered legitimate clinical trials (unlike many peptides in this guide), it has not yet received FDA approval for any indication. Some trials have shown mixed results, and the pharmaceutical development path has been rocky.

Evidence level: Strong preclinical data. Mixed but promising clinical trial data. More rigorous evidence base than most anti-aging peptides.

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Pinealon

What it is: Pinealon is an ultra-short peptide made of just three amino acids (Glu-Asp-Arg). It belongs to a class of peptides called bioregulators — short peptides that Russian researcher Dr. Vladimir Khavinson theorizes can regulate gene expression in specific tissues. Pinealon is designed to target the brain and central nervous system.

How it works: According to Khavinson's bioregulation theory, very short peptides (2–4 amino acids) can enter cells and interact directly with DNA, influencing which genes are turned on or off in specific tissues. Pinealon is proposed to:

1. Protect brain cells from oxidative damage and stress.
2. Normalize neurotransmitter activity — particularly serotonin and melatonin pathways.
3. Reduce cellular damage from hypoxia (low oxygen) and toxic exposures.
4. Support cognitive function in aging and after brain injury.

What the research says:

Pinealon research is almost exclusively from Russian laboratories:

• Cell culture studies: Pinealon protected brain cell cultures from oxidative stress and reduced cell death under toxic conditions. (Khavinson et al., Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 2011)
• Animal studies: Rats given pinealon showed improved learning and memory in maze tests, particularly in older animals and those with induced brain damage.
• Gene expression: Pinealon was shown to influence expression of genes related to antioxidant defense, apoptosis (programmed cell death), and inflammation in brain tissue.
• Human observational data: In some Russian geriatric clinical settings, bioregulator peptides including pinealon have been used in elderly patients, with reports of improved cognitive function and sleep quality. However, these are not rigorous clinical trials.

Important caveats: The bioregulator theory — that 3-amino-acid peptides can survive digestion (some forms are taken as capsules), enter specific tissues, and meaningfully regulate gene expression — is not widely accepted in Western pharmacology. The mechanism of action is poorly understood by conventional standards. Most research comes from Khavinson's group and has not been independently replicated.

Evidence level: Very preliminary. Interesting cell-culture data. Limited and non-replicated animal and human data. The underlying theory is controversial.

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Vilon

What it is: Vilon is another Khavinson bioregulator peptide, consisting of just two amino acids (Lys-Glu). It's the shortest peptide in this guide — a dipeptide. Vilon is designed to target the immune system, particularly the thymus gland.

How it works: The thymus gland is where your T-cells (a critical type of immune cell) are trained to fight infections and cancer. The thymus is very active during childhood but begins shrinking after puberty — a process called thymic involution. By age 60, the thymus is mostly replaced by fat tissue, and your production of new T-cells drops dramatically.

Vilon is proposed to:

1. Stimulate thymus function — potentially counteracting age-related thymic involution.
2. Boost T-cell production — increasing the number and activity of immune cells.
3. Restore immune surveillance — helping the immune system detect and destroy abnormal cells (including early-stage cancers).
4. Regulate inflammatory responses — balancing immune activity that can become dysregulated with age.

What the research says:

• Cell studies: Vilon was shown to stimulate the proliferation of thymus cells and lymphocytes (immune cells) in culture. (Khavinson & Anisimov, Peptides, 2003)
• Animal studies: Aged mice receiving vilon showed improved immune markers, including increased T-cell counts and enhanced response to immune challenges. Some studies also showed reduced tumor incidence in treated animals.
• Human data: In Russian clinical practice, vilon (often combined with epithalon and other bioregulators) has been used in elderly populations. Reports suggest improved immune function, fewer respiratory infections, and lower mortality rates — but again, these are observational reports rather than controlled trials.
• Combination studies: Khavinson's team often tests vilon alongside epithalon. In one notable study of elderly patients followed over 6 years, the combination of vilon + epithalon was associated with a 28% reduction in mortality compared to controls. (Khavinson, Neuroendocrinology Letters, 2003)

Important caveats: The same caveats that apply to pinealon apply here. The research is primarily from one group, has not been independently replicated, and the proposed mechanism (a two-amino-acid peptide regulating complex immune function) is unconventional.

Evidence level: Very preliminary. Interesting but unconfirmed by independent research.

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Cartalax

What it is: Cartalax is a tripeptide bioregulator (Ala-Glu-Asp) developed by the Khavinson research group. It's designed to target cartilage and connective tissue, making it relevant to the joint deterioration, reduced flexibility, and structural decline that come with aging.

How it works: Cartalax is proposed to:

1. Regulate cartilage cell (chondrocyte) function — maintaining the ability of cartilage cells to produce the extracellular matrix that keeps joints cushioned and flexible.
2. Reduce cartilage degradation — slowing the breakdown of existing cartilage tissue.
3. Influence gene expression in connective tissue — promoting genes associated with tissue maintenance and repair while suppressing those associated with degradation.
4. Anti-inflammatory effects — reducing the chronic inflammation that drives osteoarthritis and joint disease.

What the research says:

Cartalax research is the most limited of the peptides in this guide:

• Cell studies: Cartalax showed the ability to stimulate the proliferation of cartilage cells and promote the production of cartilage matrix components in culture.
• Animal studies: In aged animals, cartalax treatment was associated with improved cartilage structure and reduced degenerative changes.
• Gene expression: Like other bioregulator peptides, cartalax was shown to influence gene expression in target tissues, promoting patterns associated with younger, healthier cartilage.
• Clinical use: In Russian geriatric practice, cartalax has been used alongside other bioregulators for age-related musculoskeletal decline. Clinical data is largely anecdotal or from small, non-controlled studies.

Important caveats: Cartalax has the least published research of any peptide in this guide. The data that exists is primarily from cell cultures and animal models, with minimal human evidence.

Evidence level: Very early. Minimal published data. More theoretical than proven.

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How Anti-Aging Peptides Compare

Here's a quick comparison to help you understand where each peptide stands:

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The Bigger Picture: What Science Actually Knows About Slowing Aging

Anti-aging peptides are exciting, but they don't exist in a vacuum. It's worth putting them in context with what science has more firmly established about longevity:

What has strong evidence

• Caloric restriction and fasting — Reducing calorie intake (without malnutrition) consistently extends lifespan in nearly every organism tested, from yeast to primates. The mechanisms overlap with what many peptides target: reduced inflammation, improved mitochondrial function, and better cellular repair.
• Exercise — Regular physical activity is the single most evidence-backed anti-aging intervention. It maintains telomere length, improves mitochondrial function, clears senescent cells, and reduces every biomarker of aging.
• Sleep quality — Deep sleep is when your body performs critical repair and cleanup processes. Melatonin (which epithalon may help restore) plays a key role.
• Rapamycin and metformin — These are existing drugs (not peptides) with growing evidence for anti-aging effects. Rapamycin targets the mTOR pathway. Metformin activates AMPK. Both are in active human longevity trials.

Where peptides fit in

Peptides are best thought of as potential additions to a strong foundation — not replacements for it. No peptide will overcome the effects of poor sleep, no exercise, chronic stress, and a bad diet. But for someone who already has those basics covered, targeted peptides might offer additional benefits that conventional approaches don't address.

The most honest assessment of anti-aging peptides in 2026 is this: the biology is compelling, the early data is promising, but the large-scale proof is still missing for most of them. GHK-Cu for skin applications and SS-31 for mitochondrial function have the most conventional evidence. The Khavinson bioregulators (epithalon, pinealon, vilon, cartalax) have intriguing Russian research that the Western scientific community has been slow to validate or refute.

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Safety Considerations

Anti-aging peptides are generally considered to have favorable safety profiles based on available data, but "generally considered safe" is not the same as "proven safe in large trials."

General Risks

• Contamination: Since most of these peptides are sold as research chemicals (not FDA-approved drugs), purity and quality depend entirely on the vendor. Always demand third-party Certificates of Analysis (COAs). Read our guide on peptide safety and sourcing →
• Injection site reactions: Redness, swelling, and mild pain at the injection site are the most commonly reported side effects.
• Unknown long-term effects: None of these peptides (except SS-31 in clinical trial settings) have been studied in large populations over long time periods.
• Drug interactions: Peptides that affect the immune system (vilon), brain chemistry (pinealon), or hormone production (epithalon) could theoretically interact with medications that target those same systems.

Peptide-Specific Cautions

• Epithalon: Activating telomerase raises a theoretical concern about cancer risk, since cancer cells often hijack telomerase to achieve immortality. However, Khavinson's animal studies actually showed reduced tumor rates in epithalon-treated mice. The relationship between telomerase activation and cancer risk is complex and not fully understood.
• GHK-Cu: The copper component means that people with Wilson's disease (a copper metabolism disorder) should avoid it. Topical use has an excellent safety record.
• SS-31: As the most clinically studied peptide here, its safety profile is the best characterized. Side effects in clinical trials have been mild (injection site reactions, headache).
• Bioregulators (pinealon, vilon, cartalax): These are so short (2–3 amino acids) that they're quickly broken down by the body, which may limit both side effects and efficacy. Safety concerns are primarily theoretical.

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What to Look for Going Forward

The anti-aging peptide field is moving fast. Here's what to watch for in the coming years:

1. SS-31 FDA decisions — If elamipretide receives FDA approval for any indication, it will be a landmark moment for mitochondria-targeting peptides and could open the door to broader anti-aging research.
2. Independent replication of Khavinson's work — Western labs validating (or contradicting) the Russian bioregulator research would dramatically change how the field views epithalon, pinealon, vilon, and cartalax.
3. New delivery methods — Oral peptides, nasal sprays, and sustained-release formulations could make these peptides more practical and accessible.
4. Combination protocols — Researchers are beginning to study how these peptides might work together, potentially producing synergistic effects.
5. Biomarker-driven approaches — Rather than "take this peptide and hope for the best," future protocols may use telomere testing, mitochondrial function assays, and epigenetic clocks to measure whether a peptide is actually working for a specific individual.

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The Bottom Line

Anti-aging peptides represent one of the most exciting frontiers in longevity science. They target fundamental biological processes — telomere shortening, mitochondrial decay, immune decline, and gene expression changes — that drive aging at its roots.

But excitement needs to be tempered with honesty:

• GHK-Cu has the most accessible evidence, especially for skin health. If you're going to start anywhere, topical GHK-Cu serums are widely available, relatively affordable, and backed by real clinical data.
• SS-31 has the most rigorous research pipeline and targets what many scientists consider the most important hallmark of aging (mitochondrial dysfunction). But it's still in clinical development and not widely available outside of trials.
• Epithalon has fascinating preliminary data, but nearly all of it comes from one research group. It's a promising lead, not a proven therapy.
• Pinealon, vilon, and cartalax are the most speculative. The bioregulator concept is intriguing but remains outside mainstream pharmacological thinking. These should be considered experimental in the truest sense of the word.

No matter which peptides interest you, the fundamentals come first: sleep, exercise, nutrition, stress management, and regular medical care. Peptides are tools that might enhance a healthy foundation — they can't replace one.

And always — always — work with a knowledgeable healthcare provider. Anti-aging medicine is a rapidly evolving field, and having expert guidance is the safest way to navigate it.

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References

1. Khavinson VK, et al. "Peptide Promotes Overcoming of the Division Limit in Human Somatic Cell." Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine. 2003;135(6):544-547.
2. Anisimov VN, et al. "Effect of Epitalon on Biomarkers of Aging, Life Span and Spontaneous Tumor Incidence in Female Swiss-Derived SHR Mice." Biogerontology. 2003;4(4):193-202.
3. Khavinson VK. "Peptides and Ageing." Neuroendocrinology Letters. 2003;24 Suppl 1:11-144.
4. Pickart L, Margolina A. "Regenerative and Protective Actions of the GHK-Cu Peptide in the Light of the New Gene Data." International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2012;13(11):14002-14015. DOI: 10.3390/ijms131114002
5. Hong Y, et al. "Genome-wide profiling of GHK-Cu regulated gene expression." Genome Biology. 2012;13(11):R80. DOI: 10.1186/gb-2012-13-11-r80
6. Daubert MA, et al. "Novel Mitochondria-Targeting Peptide in Heart Failure Treatment." Circulation: Heart Failure. 2017;10(12):e004389.
7. Siegel MP, et al. "Mitochondrial-Targeted Peptide Rapidly Improves Mitochondrial Energetics and Skeletal Muscle Performance in Aged Mice." Aging Cell. 2013;12(5):763-771.
8. Thompson R, et al. "Current and Future Treatment Approaches for Barth Syndrome." Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease. 2022;45(1):17-28.
9. Khavinson VK, Anisimov VN. "Peptide Bioregulation of Aging: Results and Prospects." Biogerontology. 2000;1:69-86.
10. Pickart L. "The Human Tri-Peptide GHK and Tissue Remodeling." Journal of Biomaterials Science, Polymer Edition. 2008;19(8):969-988.

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Last updated: July 2025. This guide is reviewed and updated regularly as new research is published. Have questions? Browse all peptide guides →